Domestic Water Treatment Options--- General Discussion --- Review of Home Treatment Options --- Filtration --- Reverse Osmosis --- Distillation --- Ion Exchange --- Ultraviolet Disinfection --- Bottled Water --- Municipal Water Treatment --- Private Well Treatment Methods --- |
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Water Treatment - General Discussions |
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| Water Quality Association (WQA) | Contaminant Tables - Excellent overview. A list of the National Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards, maximum contaminant levels, sources of the contaminants, health effects (of the primary contaminants), and recommended methods of treatment. |
| XPLOR (Extension Publication Library On Request) Search Page | The home water treatment industry has responded to recent public concern over water quality by introducing a wide variety of home water treatment products into the marketplace. When faced with so many choices, consumers wonder what, if any, water treatment system they need. The various methods for treating water and some of the advantages and disadvantages of those methods are described in this bulletin. This listing is not an endorsement of any particular method or product for treating water in the home. |
| Water Treatment Information |
Welcome to our consumer portal for home water treatment advice. The aim of this site is to
compile the magnitude of water treatment information available on
the Internet into a single, concise resource. The common problems area of the site looks at the problems that can occur with well water, swimming pool water, pond water, hard water and other common household water problems. The home water treatment systems area will look at the uses, advantages and disadvantages of water filters, water softeners, water conditioners and water treatment chemicals. In this section you will also find links to more detailed information and also to relevant suppliers on the web. You may also wish to participate in their water pollution forum. The authors are promoting on their site www.givewater.org, the UK's only major charity dedicated to the provision of safe water, effective sanitation and hygiene promotion to the world's poorest people. |
| NAP | Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water(1998) - A small but growing number of municipalities are augmenting their drinking water supplies with highly treated wastewater. But some professionals in the field argue that only the purest sources should be used for drinking water. Is potable reuse a viable application of reclaimed water? How can individual communities effectively evaluate potable reuse programs? How certain must "certain" be when it comes to drinking water safety? |
| Cooperative Research Center (CRC) for Water Quality and Treatment | The CRC for Water Quality and Treatment focuses
on issues relating to water quality management and health risk reduction,
from catchment and reservoir management and water treatment to the distribution
of drinking water to consumers' taps. The publication A Consumer's Guide to
Drinking Water outlines all aspects of drinking water -
from the catchment to the tap. It
provides an overview of water in Australia and around the world and
discusses how water is collected, treated, distributed, used and
regulated. {an excellent discussion about the various processes of
municipal water treatment - RJ} The mission of the CRCWQT is to help the Australian water industry produce high quality water at an affordable price. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines |
| CNN | Toilet water on tap? - San Diego hopes to recycle waste water - SAN DIEGO (CNN, April 25, 1997) - While San Diego is a city of many natural and man-made riches, water isn't one of them. The city imports 90 percent of its water from the Colorado River and the state water project. But engineers have flushed out a startling solution to the region's water woes. If all goes according to plan, by the year 2001, the city's sewage water will be treated and recycled right into the drinking tap. |
| Science Daily | Banking On Safer Drinking Water - Scientists test riverside soil as a natural purifying agent Bustling rivers such as the Mississippi and the Ohio are the source of drinking water for millions of Americans. But these rivers are likely to contain hazardous chemicals and pathogens that must be removed or neutralized before the water is safe for drinking. New research suggests that the soil alongside these channels could help with the cleanup. Drawing river water through the adjacent earth may strip away some unwanted pollutants, including harmful viruses, protozoa and bacteria, researchers at The Johns Hopkins University believe. |
| Time-Life Millennium Report | Drinking Water Purification - Life Magazine's selection for one of the top 100 events of the Millennium . A person consumes 16,000 gallons of water in a lifetime. But before 1829, when the Chelsea Water Works of London installed its landmark slow-sand filter on the Thames River, no one had effectively cleaned it..... The filtration of drinking water (plus the use of chlorine) is probably the most significant public health advance of the millennium. |
| AWWA Research Foundation | The AWWA Research Foundation sponsors practical, applied and future-need based research for the drinking water community. AWWARF's research program embraces all aspects of water supply planning and operation. Check the AwwaRF Project Summaries and Special Reports sections. {mostly for the water professional - RJ} |
| Chlorine Chemistry Council (CCC) | The Chlorine Chemistry Council, comprised of
chlorine and chlorinated product manufacturers, is a business council of
the Chemical Manufacturers Association. CCC strives to achieve policies that
promote the continuing, responsible uses of chlorine and chlorine-based products.
Rachel's Folly: The
End of Chlorine {an interesting article, but the link no
longer works - RJ} - The environmentalists are right about one thing: Dirty
water kills. Millions are people are dying needlessly all over the world
because of it. But are the main culprits man-made pollution and chlorinated
chemicals? Try endemic poverty, bad plumbing and lack of access to basic
water chlorination techniques. Every year, nearly 1.5 billion people - mostly
children under five - suffer from preventable water-borne diseases such as
cholera, typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, bacterial gastroenteritis, giardiasis,
schistosomiasis, and various viral diseases such as hepatitis A. Yet now
there is a mounting campaign, led by environmental activists in wealthy
industrialized nations, to eliminate every last man-made chlorine molecule
from the face of the earth. There is a tremendous amount of interesting information on this site about disinfection of water using chlorine. Articles about Disinfection and Chlorine, What is it. |
| U.S. Water News Online | Banking on safer drinking water. Bustling rivers such as the Mississippi and the Ohio are the source of drinking water for millions of Americans. But these rivers are likely to contain hazardous chemicals and pathogens that must be removed or neutralized before the water is safe for drinking. New research suggests that the soil alongside these channels could help with the cleanup. Drawing river water through the adjacent earth may strip away some unwanted pollutants, including harmful viruses, protozoa, and bacteria, researchers at The Johns Hopkins University believe. The idea is called river-bank filtration. Instead of pulling water directly from the river for subsequent treatment and distribution, utilities drill wells nearby. River water drawn from these wells must first pass through hundreds of feet of soil, which serves as a natural filter. |
| NBC News | Turning salt water into gold But desalination advances slowed by few funds. Oct. 10 - It's a goal that's as tricky as it is tempting: turning salt water into drinking water at a cost that makes it practical. Engineers around the world, from Oman to Illinois, have been wracking their brains trying to make the technology cheaper - and to get governments to fund more research. The stakes are enormous, but so far, advocates say, the investment in science and technology hasn't reflected that fact. |
| NC State University, Cooperative Extension | Water Quality and Waste Management - Care and concern for our environment is the biggest public issue of the 1990s. But long before overflowing landfills and groundwater pollution became front-page news, the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service recognized the problems and began looking for solutions. The Water Quality and Waste Management Initiative has evolved in response to the dire need to protect and preserve our world. Through North Carolina State University and the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, we can link the science of today with the environment of tomorrow. |
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No discussion about water treatment would be complete
these days without mention of what I call "altered" water - water that
has been treated in some way to purportedly "enhance" it's health
effects. Regardless of any alleged health benefits, these products
are extremely effective at separating a customer from their money - I have seen
some of this bottled water sell for more than $16 a gallon (that's about 3,000 times
more than the cost of tap water). In my estimation, the fact that these
products appear to flourish and multiply is a sad testament to the inability of
some consumers to effectively evaluate claims about a product's effectiveness. |
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Water Treatment - Reviews of Home Treatment Options |
The importance of independent certification for products that impact people's health. There are many thousands of companies producing health-related products and making claims about the products' performance. Unless there is certification by an independent, disinterested third party that the claims are accurate, the product ads could be nothing more than creative writing. When purchasing health products, however, creative advertising can be downright dangerous, not to mention expensive. NSF certification means that not only do the products perform as tested, the product advertisements are also evaluated for accuracy and truthfulness. |
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| NSF International | Mission statement - Behind the NSF Mark is an
independent, not-for-profit organization called NSF International. For over
50 years NSF has been committed to public health safety and protection of
the environment by developing standards, by providing education and by providing
third-party conformity assessment services while representing the interest
of all stakeholders. This site provides an on-line comparison of water filtration
units that are certified by NSF. The NSF Certified Product Listings You may select "Drinking Water Treatment Units" and/or "Bottled Water and Packaged Ice". The ANSI/NSF Standards that pertain to water filters are # 42 and # 53. To use the guide, select a standard then click on the button with the First Letter of the company you are interested in checking. Other water treatment certification standards: ANSI/NSF 44: Cation Exchange Water Softeners ANSI/NSF 58: Reverse Osmosis Drinking Water Systems ANSI/NSF 62: Drinking Water Distillation Systems |
| WaterTech. Online | Water industry news. {considerable
information here, but somewhat difficult to locate specific articles of
interest. Use the Article
Archives and Keyword Search for best results - RJ} How NSF Sets POU/POE Standards - It's one of the marks of assurance in a changing industry. The water treatment industry has evolved dramatically since the 1960s, when its primary focus was on water conditioning (that is, softening and improving the taste of potable water). Today, in addition to such basic services for consumers, the industry is called upon to develop technologies for treating drinking water that has fallen below acceptable public health standards. Contaminants such as lead and Cryptosporidium have placed the water treatment industry in a key public-health protection role. The NSF International -- or simply NSF -- has worked closely with the water treatment industry for more than 30 years, developing public- health standards for treatment technologies that meet changing market demands. |
| Welcome to SEAHOME, where you can download free interactive software on environmental topics. These programs are produced by Purdue University in cooperation with US EPA. | A brief description (and occasional diagram) of a number of home water treatment options. |
| Online
Purdue Extension Educational Materials |
Buying Home Water Treatment Equipment - Consumers can choose from a variety of home water treatment products. In response to recent public concern of water quality, the home water treatment industry now offers many products. When faced with so many choices, consumers wonder what, if any, water treatment system they need. The various methods for treating water and some of the advantages and disadvantages of those methods are described in this bulletin. This is not an endorsement of any particular method or product for treating water in the home. {Good diagrams of treatment methods - RJ} |
| Everpure | Short
Course, Water Purification and Treatment {PDF} {Very
good article - RJ} General Information About Water Drinking Water Quality Standards Centrally Treated Water Supplies Individual Water Supplies Description of Water Problems Types of Water Treatment and the Equipment Used |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Safe Drinking Water Testing and Treating Home Drinking Water:- Discusses various water treatment methods {Note that the discussion of bacterial growth in carbon filters applies to granulated activated carbon (GAC) filters, not to micro-pore, solid block activated carbon filters - RJ} |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Your Home's Health Household Water Treatment {extensive descriptions of treatment strategies} Many types of water treatment and conditioning systems are available; their effectiveness depends on the quality of the water and how much contamination is present. The only way to determine contaminant levels is to have your water tested by a certified laboratory or qualified water specialist with reliable field test equipment. Therefore it is recommended that the water supply be tested before any type of treatment is used. You should not rely on water samples taken by a water treatment salesperson. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | A Guide To Home Water Treatment {another summary of treatment methods, provides some information different than that found in the above article} |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Choosing Home Water Devices There are many home water treatment manufacturers, dealers and products in today's market. Choosing the best water treatment device for your home can be difficult. Reliability, product performance, dealer reputation, and cost of installation and upkeep are important for you to consider when choosing a home water treatment unit. Unfortunately, there are few federal and state guidelines to regulate the sale and manufacture of water treatment devices. |
| Mississippi State University Extension Service | Questions to ask a water treatment professional to help determine the system you need. The extent to which the manufacturer or distributor is able to provide answers can help you make an informed choice |
| Water Center University of Nebraska-Lincoln | Drinking
Water Issues FAQs Water Treatment Equipment: A Buyer's Guide Reports of water contamination have raised consumer awareness and concern about the safety of all water sources, both public and private. Manufacturers and dealers of home water treatment equipment are responding to the perception of unsafe water. An increasing number of manufacturers offer an ever-expanding array of products that promise to make water safe, or "pure." The consumer is left to sift through the claims and supporting data when selecting treatment methods and products... Be specific about what you want to accomplish with water treatment equipment. Rely on independent water tests to identify and evaluate specific contaminants. There is no single device or method that removes everything or solves every water problem, regardless of the claims. In any case, it is generally not necessary to remove everything. |
| Other Discussions of Drinking Water Treatment
Methods A Guide to Home Water Treatment |
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| AMAZON.COM | Cottage Water Systems: An Out-Of-The City Guide to Pumps, Plumbing, Water Purification, and Privies - by Max Burns - List Price: $24.95 - Amazon Price: $19.96 - Review - From the Publisher - The do-it-yourselfer's dream for household water systems. Cottage Water Systems is a well-written, well-illustrated guide to providing your "cottage" (or rural home) with water-in and water-out. It clearly explains water supplies, water quality, water in winter (very important), and wastewater. Includes troubleshooting guides for common problems. (Larry Dieterich, Whole Earth Review #85, Spring 1995, Special Water Edition). Other reviews on line. |
| AMAZON.COM | The Home Water Supply: How to Find, Filter, Store and Conserve It - by Stu Campbell, Roger Griffith - Amazon Price: $15.16 |
| ABC News | Drinking Water Fears Using Scare Tactics to Sell Water Filters. Fraudulent sellers that advertise "free home water testing" may only be interested in selling you their water treatment device - whether you need it or not. |
| NBC News | How to avoid sharks in the water-filter industry Have you ever been told "you are what you eat?" If you made it through high-school biology, then you know it may be more accurate to say you are what you drink. About two-thirds of your body is water, and if you're concerned about the quality of the water that you and your family are drinking, you're not alone. More Americans are buying water filters than ever before, and the reasons are as varied as the devices that they are buying. A recent Dateline NBC investigation focused on fraud in the water filter industry, and found that sometimes the sales tactics can be dirtier than the water. But if you want to make sure that your water is pure, there are steps that you can take to find out what system would be best for you without falling prey to deceptive sales tactics. [The article goes on to provide suggestions for spotting fraudulent sales tactics] |
| More Reviews of Home Water Treatment Methods Household Water Treatment Home Water Treatment Systems |
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Water Treatment - FiltrationActivated Carbon : Useful for reducing chlorine, disinfectionbyproducts, a wide range of organic compounds, radon, and (depending on pore size and manufacturer) asbestos fibers and other particulates, some biological contaminants, lead, mercury, arsenic v, and some radon and hydrogen sulfide. Sediment & Ceramic: Reduce particulate material only. Effectiveness depends on pore size. Some can remove asbestos fibers and some biological contaminants. Sediment filters are typically used to remove larger particles and prevent clogging of other water treatment devices. Ceramic filters with a small pore size (0.2 micron) can remove cysts and most bacteria from water. |
| Virginia Tech - Civil and Environmental Engineering | Activated Carbon {AC} - AC is made of tiny clusters of carbon atoms stacked upon one another. The carbon source is a variety of materials, such as peanut shells, coconut husks, or coal. The raw carbon source is slowly heated in the absence of air to produce a high carbon material. The carbon is activated by passing oxidizing gases through the material at extremely high temperatures. The activation process produces the pores that result in such high adsorptive properties. Activated carbon is useful in drinking water treatment because it acts as an adsorbent, and can effectively remove particles and organics from water. These organics are of great concern in water treatment because they react with many disinfectants, especially chlorine, and cause the formation of disinfection-by-products, DBP's (Clark, 1989). These DBP's are often carcinogenic and therefore highly undesirable. {The article describes how AC works and has some of the best scanning electron microscope pictures of actual AC granules and pores I have seen - RJ} |
| Chemviron Carbon | What is Activated Carbon - Activated carbon is a crude form of graphite, the substance used for pencil leads. It differs from graphite by having a random imperfect structure which is highly porous over a broad range of pore sizes from visible cracks and crevices to molecular dimensions. The graphite structure gives the carbon it's very large surface area which allows the carbon to adsorb a wide range of compounds. |
| Virginia Tech's Environmental Engineering & Sciences | Characteristics of Activated Carbon - The effectiveness of activated carbon as an adsorbent is attributed to its unique properties, including "large surface area, a high degree of surface reactivity, universal adsorption effect, and favorable pore size," according to Bansal. Activated carbon is often characterized by its extremely large surface area. In fact, the surface area per gram of material can range from 500 to 1,400 square meters, and values as high as 2,500 m2/g have been reported. The complex internal surface area is usually divided into three components. Channels and pores with diameters less than 2 nm are commonly known as micropores; these micropores generally contain the largest portion of the carbon's surface area. On the other hand, pores with diameters between 2 and 50 nm are known as mesopores, and pores with diameters greater than 50 nm are defined as macropores. |
| Oregon State University Extension Service | Home Water Treatment Using Activated Carbon - AC filters used for home water treatment contain either granular activated carbon (GAC) or powdered block carbon. Although both are effective, one study comparing GAC with block AC filters showed that the block AC filters were more effective in removing chlorine, taste and halogenated organic compounds. The amount of AC in a filter is one of the most important characteristics affecting the amount and rate of pollutant removal. More carbon in a cartridge means more capacity for chemical removal and, therefore, leads to longer cartridge lifetime. This means fewer cartridge changes and less chance of drinking contaminated water. Particle size will also affect the rate of removal; smaller AC particles generally show higher adsorption rates. |
| CNN | Water worries? -- The right filtration system may help - (CNN, January 11, 1999) -- ......... According the EPA, 87 percent of the nation's drinking water is safe. But for extra insurance against water woes, many are turning to home filtration systems. {This article shows a comparison of a filter before use and at the end of its life.} |
| Detroit Free Press | Assorted filtering devices let you perform your own clean water act - March 30, 1997 - A lot of people are going out of their way to avoid drinking tap water. Whether they are using home-filtered systems or bottled water, they prefer the taste over what comes just from the faucet. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Home Water Treatment Using
Activated Carbon AC filters used for home water treatment
contain either granular activated carbon (GAC) or powdered block carbon.
Although both are effective, one study comparing GAC with block AC
filters showed that the block AC filters were more effective in removing
chlorine, taste and halogenated organic compounds. The amount of AC in a filter is one of the most important characteristics affecting the amount and rate of pollutant removal. More carbon in a cartridge means more capacity for chemical removal, resulting in longer cartridge lifetime. This means fewer cartridge changes and less chance of drinking contaminated water. Particle size will also affect the rate of removal; smaller AC particles generally show higher adsorption rates. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies
- Activated Carbon
Filtration AC works by attracting and holding certain chemicals as
water passes through it. AC is a highly porous material; therefore, it
has an extremely high surface area for contaminant adsorption. The
equivalent surface area of 1 pound of AC ranges from 60 to 150 acres. AC is made of tiny clusters of carbon atoms stacked upon one another. The carbon source is a variety of materials, such as peanut shells or coal. The raw carbon source is slowly heated in the absence of air to produce a high carbon material. The carbon is activated by passing oxidizing gases through the material at extremely high temperatures. The activation process produces the pores that result in such high adsorptive properties. |
| WQWM | Drinking Water Treatment Systems - When water is contaminated, it is best to eliminate the source of the contamination, if at all possible. If this cannot be done, then water may need to be treated. Treatment can reduce common contaminates, such as sediment, calcium, iron, magnesium, sulfate, nitrates, arsenic, or lead. Water treatment can produce a clearer, safer, better tasting, and better smelling water, better suited for household use. Some typical water quality problems and recommended treatment systems are listed in Table 1. There are eight general types of treatment systems available for household use. These include carbon filters, fiber filters, reverse osmosis units, distillation, neutralizers, chemical-feed pumps, disinfection, and softeners. These systems range in cost from a few dollars to several thousand dollars, depending on the type of system and the type of contaminants. {note, discussion of carbon filters and bacterial contamination applies to granulated carbon filters, not solid block micro-filters - RJ} |
| Oregon State University Extension Service | New Grounds for Drinking Coffee - New information suggests that your morning cup of coffee may be a healthy part of a nutritious breakfast. Research by an international team of scientists published in the April 2000 issue of Human and Ecological Risk Assessment has shown that automatic drip coffee makers can remove up to 85% of both copper and lead in tap water. Team leader Herbert E. Allen, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of Delaware in Newark, speculates that coffee grounds retain heavy metals through surface chelation, a chemical reaction in which metals form complexes with organic matter. After looking at ion exchange or adsorption as possible filtering mechanisms, Allen says that due to coffee's nature (coffee grounds having uncharged or negatively charged molecules) surface chelation most likely explains the large percentage of metals removed. Because dissolved heavy metals are positively charged, the metal ions bind strongly to the coffee, he says. {not precisely filtration, but interesting - RJ} |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) |
Drinking Water: Man-made Chemicals - Man-made chemicals can be removed from household drinking water by three primary methods: activated carbon filters, reverse osmosis, and distillation. Home treatment equipment using these processes is available from several manufacturers. No single type of treatment system will remove all man-made chemicals. That's why it is desirable to identify specifically (if possible) which contaminants are present in the water. Then ask the water treatment equipment dealer for equipment performance data on removal of the contaminants of concern. |
| Central Washington University | {Outdoor} Water Drinking Strategies - Why filter? Boiling kills off all water-borne pathogenic organisms. Trouble is, you have to maintain the water at a rolling boil for 5 minutes - an extra burden on your fuel supplies. It's further complicated by the fact that boiling temperatures decrease with altitude, dropping 5 degrees C every 5,000 feet. At 15,000 feet. Apart from the resultant taste, chemical tablets work fine, but they don't clean the water, and they do need to be left long enough to work properly. Filter/purifiers are the best option for speed and convenience. |
| XPLOR ( Extension Publication Library On Request) Search Page | Drinking Water Treatment Devices: Filters - Three kinds of filtering devices are available — those using carbon filters, fiber filters and reverse osmosis. {gives an overview of price ranges for the different types of filtration devices - 1993 prices, but it demonstrates the large differences in price even for filters of the same type. |
| The Poop Sheets | Ceramic filter - will remove most bugs/germs: virus, giardia, cholera -- you name it. (You can get drinkable water out of a swamp or animal watering hole. They're used in places like Africa by World Health Organization workers and similar UN agencies.) They need frequent but easy cleaning. They will not remove salt or heavy metals (lead, mercury, etc.). Most are quite small (intended for back-packers) and are intended to be pumped by hand (a quart of water in about 1½ minutes). They're expensive. They can be mounted on a sink rim and the RV water line connected through a valve. When the valve is open, the RV pump runs water through the filter (no hand pumping) and fills your jug twice as fast. Serious back-packers consider these a necessity so, if you have one, you might as well use it in the RV as well. |
| misc. survivalism FAQ on water treatment - Microfilters are small scale filters designed to remove cysts, suspended solids, protozoa, and in some cases bacteria from water. Most filters use a ceramic or fiber element that can be cleaned to restore performance as the units are used. Most units, and almost all made for camping use a hand pump to force the water through the filter. Others use gravity, either by placing the water to be filtered above the filter, or by placing the filter in the water, and running a siphon hose to a collection vessel located below the filter. | |
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Water Treatment - Reverse Osmosis (RO)Very clean water is obtained by forcing water through a semi-permeable membrane that is designed to allow water molecules pass through while blocking contaminants. When working correctly RO, removes most inorganic and biological contaminants and, with activated carbon filtration added, most organic contaminants as well. |
| Thornton | Reverse Osmosis - Osmosis: To understand reverse osmosis we must first understand osmosis. During natural osmosis, water flows from a less concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane to a more concentrated saline solution until concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal {actually, in practice, the concentrations will usually not become equal. Pressures on one side of the membrane or the other will stop net water movement before equality - RJ}. This site has diagrams of RO, and deionization. |
| Cornell
Cooperative Extension Water Quality Fact Sheets |
Reverse Osmosis Treatment of Drinking Water - Reverse osmosis (RO) systems can often improve the quality of water. The reverse osmosis water treatment method has been used extensively to convert brackish or seawater to drinking water, to clean up wastewater, and to recover dissolved salts from industrial processes. It is becoming more popular in the home market as homeowners are increasingly concerned about contaminants that affect their health, as well as about non-hazardous chemicals that affect the taste, odor, or color of their drinking water. |
| Osmonics | The
Filtration Spectrum (An in-depth study of the filtration spectrum - excellent
discussion - RJ) How Osmonics Membranes Work Fundamentals Of OSMO Systems (technical discussion) Advanced Water Treatment Technologies May Bring Purified Water to San Diego |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Possible Treatments - Reverse Osmosis |
| Ionics | Ultrafiltration
(UF) Systems - Diagrams of hollow fiber membrane and spiral wound
membrane technologies. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a membrane process in which solutions are desalted or concentrated using relatively high hydraulic pressure as the driving force. In the RO process the salt ions and other contaminants are excluded or rejected by the RO membrane while pure water is forced through the membrane by pressure. |
| Oregon State University Extension Service | Reverse Osmosis for Home Treatment of Drinking Water - Reverse osmosis (RO) has found increasing use as a home treatment method for contaminated drinking water. RO is probably best known for its use in desalination projects (turning seawater into drinking water); however it is also effective for treating water quality problems in the home. |
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Water Treatment - DistillationHeat causes water molecules to evaporate from contaminated water. The resulting water vapor is condensed and collected. A high quality distillation system (with appropriate "traps" for VOCs) will produce very pure water with nearly all contaminants (organic, inorganic, and biological) removed. In emergency situations and in developing countries solar distillation can be in important source of safe water. |
| University of Minnesota Extension Service | Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies: Distillation - The distillation process removes almost all impurities from water. Distillers are commonly used for removing nitrate, bacteria, sodium, hardness (dissolved solids), most organic compounds, heavy metals and radionucleides from water. Distillers remove about 99.5% of the impurities from the original water. {Provides a good overview of the costs of water distillation including a formula to calculate your own distillation costs - RJ} |
| Mississippi
State University Extension Service Search |
Drinking Water Treatment Devices: Distillers - When the distiller is operating, tap water in a tank (often made of stainless steel) is heated to boiling to kill bacteria and viruses. Steam is produced, rises and leaves impurities behind. The steam then enters condensing coils where it is cooled by air or water and is converted back to water. Distilled water then goes into outside storage or is dispensed from an interior storage tank through a faucet. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Distillation For Home Water Treatment - Distillation is one of the oldest methods of water treatment and is still in use today, though not commonly as a home treatment method It can effectively remove many contaminants from drinking water, including bacteria, inorganic and many organic compounds. |
| How Steam Distillation Works - a diagram of the distillation process. | |
| Working Group On Development Techniques |
Warming water with solar energy - In this chapter we will examine the heating of water by means of solar energy. This has several applications; we consider the distillation of dirty water, the heating of clean water and the sterilization of water and of medical instruments. |
| SolAqua |
Solar Water Distillation - SolAqua Still - Solar water distillation is one of the simplest and most effective methods of purifying water. Solar water distillation replicates the way nature purifies water. The sun's energy heats water to the point of evaporation. As the water evaporates, purified water vapor rises, condensing on the glass surface for collection. This process removes impurities such as salts and heavy metals, as well as destroying microbiological organisms. The end result is water cleaner than the purest rainwater. The SolAqua Still is a passive solar distiller. Only solar energy is required for the still to operate. |
| Agua Del Sol | Forty years ago, our founder, Horace MacCracken,
designed and created the first solar still, an innovation that harnessed
clean, renewable energy to create the purest form of our most basic human
need: water. Still inspired by that legacy today, Agua Del Sol produces solar-powered products and equipment, including efficient, hand-crafted, environmentally sound water distillers that provide pure, clear and clean water to families and businesses throughout the world |
| Aqua Sun |
Aqua Sun - This portable water purifier can purify water from most fresh water sources like puddles, lakes, rivers, and streams. Since this purifier can make use of solar energy and 12 volt power it can be operated in the field, or from a vehicle making it truly portable. Purifying 60 gals/hour on 12 volt vehicle power and about 100 gals/day on the solar charged batteries. |
| Solar water disinfection (SODIS) | Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple water treatment process using solar radiation to inactivate and destroy pathogenic microorganisms present in the water. The treatment method basically consists in filling plastic bottles with water and exposing them to full sunlight for about five hours. {NOT Distillation, but important - A simple, inexpensive method for treating water in an emergency when other purification technologies are not available - disinfection, filtration, etc. Unless the water becomes hot in the process, however, the sunlight will probably cause algae, and some animals that feed on them, to grow. As the article points out, this treatment does nothing to remove chemical contaminants - RJ} |
| Other Distillation Links Distillation for Home Water Treatment A discussion about health effects of water produced with reverse osmosis, distillation, and deionization (RDD). |
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Water Treatment - Ion ExchangeCation - Cation exchange systems soften hard water by removing the Also includes a brief section (all I've been able to find) on magnetic water conditioning to reduce hard water scale - doesn't really fit under ion exchange, but if it works, it would be an alternative to softening. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies - Softening |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) |
Drinking
Water: Hard Water - There are two ways to help control water
hardness: use a packaged water softener, or use a mechanical water
softening unit..... Hard water treated with an ion exchange
water softener has sodium added. According to the Water Quality
Association (WQA), the ion exchange softening process adds sodium at the
rate of about 8 mg/liter for each grain of hardness removed per gallon
of water. For example, if the water has a hardness of 10
grains per gallon, it will contain about 80 mg/liter of sodium after
being softened in an ion exchange water softener if all hardness
minerals are removed. |
| Nashville Metro Water Services | Soft Water is Not for Drinking |
| Camwell | Nitrate Reduction Systems: Ion Exchange - Ion exchange Nitrate removal systems pass water through a special polymer resin that removes the negative Nitrate and Sulphate ions and replaces them with Chloride. Sulphate is not harmful at the low levels found in most waters, but its chemical structure is very similar to that of Nitrate so it is automatically removed at the same time. |
| Ohionline |
How can nitrates be reduced or removed from water? Nitrate is a very soluble substance, easily dissolved in water and extremely hard to remove. Treatment for nitrate is, therefore, very complicated and expensive. The three methods of reducing or removing nitrate are: ( 1) demineralization by distillation or reverse osmosis; (2) ion exchange; and (3) blending {dilution to safe levels}. Part of the series: Nitrate in Drinking Water |
| Resin Tech |
Removing Organics with Ion Exchange Resin - It is not too often that a water treatment problem can be fixed without spending money on new equipment. But when treating water for the removal of organics, the answer may be as simple as adding a small amount of anion resin to an existing softner. {pdf} |
| Culligan of Canada | Fundamentals of Deionization by Ion Exchange - Cations are removed by cation exchange resin. It replaces sodium, calcium magnesium and other cations with hydrogen ions (H+). This exchange produces acids which must be removed or neutralized by anion exchange resin. Two general types of anion resin are used for deionization: weak base resin and strong base resin. Weak base resin adsorbs strong acids, while strong base resin exchanges chloride, sulfate and alkaline anions for hydroxide ions (OH-). The hydrogen ions from the cation exchange process combine with the hydroxide ions from the anion exchange process to form water (HOH or H2O). |
| Ionics | Ion-exchange
membranes and electrodialysis - Diagram of process. Electrodeionization (EDI) - Diagram at bottom of page. |
| Water Treatment Information | Water Conditioners Overview Water Conditioners work by altering the crystallisation behaviour of Calcium and Magnesium ions such that they loose their ability to cause adhesive scale. Atlhough some are sceptical as to their effectiveness, there have been many cases where people have found them to be very successful. |
| The School of Water Sciences at Cranfield University | Antiscale Magnetic Treatment - What is Magnetic Water Treatment? The subject of Antiscale Magnetic Treatment (AMT) and other physical methods of scale suppression remain controversial and are still labelled as gadgetry in some scientific circles. The debate is understandable; for many years the positive effects well documented in trade literature resulting from industrial applications have been undermined by the apparent lack of good results from laboratory tests. In addition, some manufacturers continue to promote ineffective devices (with dubious literature) for applications where no real evidence exists, anecdotal or otherwise to show that they could ever, or have ever worked. However, many devices on the market have reasonably good track records, but even these have occasionally proven ineffective in certain situations. |
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Water Treatment - UltravioletUltraviolet treatment of water is a disinfectant (kills microorganisms only - depending on dose and contact time). The treatment does not remove any other contaminants! |
| Northeast-Midwest Institute | UV Treatment Technology Description - Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is light energy between 100 and 400nm wavelength, between the X-ray portion of the spectrum and the visible portion (Figure 2-1). In most UV disinfection applications, the short wave portion of the UV spectrum is used. This section is referred to as UV-C and spans from 200-280nm. In general, UV radiation of microorganisms causes chemical bonds to form in cellular DNA. The exposure thus interrupts normal DNA replication and organisms are killed or rendered inactive. UV disinfection of water is currently used in the drinking water, wastewater, and aquaculture industries. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Possible Treatments - Ultraviolet Radiation |
| Solar Cookers International | Sun and water: an overview of solar water treatment devices - A very low-tech method, using direct solar radiation to reduce pathogens, was field-tested by researchers from the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin, Ireland. The researchers gave 206 Masai children clear, 1.5-liter plastic bottles. The children in the test group were told to fill the bottles (from the contaminated water supply) and place them on the roof, from dawn to midday. The control group kept their bottles inside. Diarrhea incidence in the two groups was tracked over 12 weeks. The researchers found that this solar radiation method may significantly reduce diarrheal disease for communities that have no other way to disinfect water (4). |
| Solar water disinfection (SODIS) | Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple
water treatment process using solar radiation to inactivate and destroy
pathogenic microorganisms present in the water. The treatment method basically
consists in filling plastic bottles with water and exposing them to full
sunlight for about five hours. A simple, inexpensive method for treating water in an emergency when other purfication technologies are not available - disinfection, filtration, etc. Unless the water becomes hot in the process, however, the sunlight will probably cause algae, and some animals that feed on them, to grow. As the article points out, this treatment does nothing to remove chemical contaminants. (other solar disinfection links in the Emergency Water Treatment list) |
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Water Treatment - Bottled Water |
| WaterTech. Online | Bottled
water's success breeds discontent Stringent
regulations pose threat to bottled water industry. The Secret Ingredient Value-added is the next bottled water wave. Health Groups Want Nicotine-Enhanced Water Regulated |
| Detroit Free Press | What's
in the water? - September 9, 1998. Here's what's in bottled water, according
to the International Bottled Water Association: Definitions of bottled
water terms, Artesian, Mineral, Purified, etc. Tap water can be purer than bottled - April 1, 1999 The labels promise bliss in a bottle: pure, fresh water delivered straight from a mountain stream. But marketing is more glamorous than reality in much of the $4-billion bottled-water industry, a national research group reported this week. And Michigan is no exception. Is bottled water worth the price? - May 19, 1998.On the water front, America is split into two factions: One, a shrinking majority, still drinks its water from taps at a cost that rarely exceeds a penny a gallon. The other demands bottled water at a cost that routinely tops the cost of gasoline. |
| International Bottled Water Association | The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is the trade association representing the bottled water industry. Founded in 1958, IBWA's member companies produce and distribute 80 percent of the bottled water sold in the United States. Our membership includes U.S. and international bottlers, distributors and suppliers. |
| Bottled Water Web | This is the portal for the bottled water industry and where you will find extensive information about bottled water. |
| Canadian Bottled Water Association | The Canadian Bottled Water Association (CBWA) was founded in 1992 to represent the Canadian bottled water industry and to ensure a high standard of quality for bottled water. |
| Palomar Mountain Spring Water - Water Facts | Information on bottled water including a description of various types of bottled water. |
| What are the different types of bottled water? | There are several different varieties of bottled water. The product may be labeled as bottled water, drinking water or any of the following terms. The Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) product definitions for bottled water are: Definition of the various types of bottled water follow. |
| BBC News | Bottled water 'a waste of money' (Thursday, 3 May, 2001, 03:50 GMT 04:50 UK) - Research commissioned by a Swiss-based conservation group indicates that bottled water is often no healthier or safer to drink than tap water. The World Wide Fund for Nature argues strongly that bottled water is not only environmentally unfriendly but also a waste of money. The research by the University of Geneva shows that bottled water sells for up to 1,000 times the price of tap water, but that the quality is often no better. In 50% of cases the only difference is that bottled water has added minerals and salts, which do not actually mean the water is healthier. |
| WWF | Bottled Water: Understanding A Social Phenomenon - This independently produced discussion paper, commissioned by WWF, aims to provide background information on bottled water and the bottled water world market, in order to understand the reasons behind a trend that has become a social phenomenon. It identifies existing types of bottled water, examines the bottled water industry, and looks at market trends into the future. It then attempts to identify the major reasons why consumers choose to buy expensive bottled water, rather than drink tap water. Proceeding to a close with an analysis on the impact this industry has had on the environment. |
| Mississippi
State University Extension Service Search |
Water
Quality: Bottled Water Water is one of our most abundant chemical
compounds. It also is one of the most debated substances as far as safety
is concerned. Many people buy water as a primary source of drinking water, because their water is unsafe (whether perceived or from test results) or has an "off" taste or odor. Bottled water is best used only as a temporary measure in small quantities, since the cost averages about 5 cents per gallon. Is bottled water, in fact, better than tap water? It depends on the source and the treatment for the water. Tap water and bottled water are subject to regulations. Disinfection of water is completed with ozone or chlorine. Water naturally contains varying amounts of carbon dioxide, calcium, iron compounds, sodium, fluoride, and other minerals and mineral salts. All are substances that affect taste. Differences in the amounts explain why the taste of tap water varies from one area to another. Bottled water processed from city water systems, wells, or springs varies in mineral content, from low to high in "mineral" waters. Sometimes minerals are added in processing to improve the flavor of water. {Diagram included of water treatment for various types of bottled water - RJ} |
| CNN | Bottled
water may not be better, environmental group reports - (CNN, March 31,
1999) -- Bottled water is often touted as pure and healthy, but it may not
be safer than ordinary tap water, according to study of bottled water samples
by an environmental advocacy group. The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) tested more than 1,000 bottles of 103 different brands of bottled water from bought in California, Florida, Illinois, New York, Texas and the District of Columbia. Most waters were high quality, but about one-third of the brands tested had at least one sample that was contaminated with high levels of pollutants that exceeded levels allowed by California or bottled water industry standards or guidelines. California has the highest set of standards for bottled water, the NRDC says. The study found 22 percent of waters contained levels of synthetic compounds such as arsenic that exceeded the California limit, and 17 percent contained levels of bacteria above voluntary industry standards. |
| CNN | Pure water vending machines may not be so pure - TUCSON, Arizona (CNN, May 21, 1996) -- Vending machines that dispense drinking water are becoming more popular among people distrustful of tap water. They're convenient -- bring your own container, put in your money and take home a bottle of crystal clear pure water. That was the idea anyway, but a recent University of Arizona study found bacteria in close to one out of four of the supermarket machines tested. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | BOTTLED WATER Crystal Clear Choice or Cloudy Dilemma? When people picture where bottled water comes from they probably imagine a bubbling mountain stream or a gushing artesian well. In many cases, the water does come from such natural sources, but about one-quarter of all bottled water comes from a municipal supply. |
| NRDC | Bottled Water Pure Drink or Pure Hype? While bottled water marketing conveys images of purity, inadequate regulations offer no assurance. Sales of bottled water in this country have exploded in recent years, largely as a result of a public perception of purity driven by advertisements and packaging labels featuring pristine glaciers and crystal-clear mountain springs. But bottled water sold in the United States is not necessarily cleaner or safer than most tap water, according to a four-year scientific study recently made public by NRDC. |
| Sierra Club | The Hidden Life of Bottled Water |
| Seven Creeks Spring Water | Welcome to the Seven Creeks Spring Water web site. The nation's first, self serve, EPA approved state licensed, spring where you can fill your own container with Mother Nature approved, spring water just as it naturally flows from the ground. The spring water has been used as long as anyone can remember and has been state licensed since 1998. {Normally I am not a big fan of commercial bottled water use, except in emergencies, because the average home owner can usually treat their water effectively for a fraction of the price and much less hassle. That said, this site brought back fond memories of camping trips into the Colorado Rockies back when drinking mountain spring and stream water was not as dangerous (or we were too ignorant to appreciate the risks). Nothing tastes as good as fresh, cold spring water!} |
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|
Municipal Water Treatment Links |
| Central Coast Water Authority | Virtual Tour of the Polonio Pass Water Treatment Plant |
| CPL Carbon Link | Municipal
Water Treatment using Granular
Activated Carbon (GAC) Municipal Water Treatment using Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) {Good diagram of water treatment process - RJ} |
| Lehigh Valley Water Suppliers, Inc. | Surface
Water Treatment Tour Groundwater Tour |
| NAP | Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities (1997). Small communities violate federal requirements for safe drinking water as much as three times more often than cities. Yet these communities often cannot afford to improve their water service. This book reviews the risks of violating drinking water standards and discusses options for improving water service in small communities. Included are detailed reviews of a wide range of technologies appropriate for treating drinking water in small communities. The book also presents a variety of institutional options for improving the management efficiency and financial stability of water systems. |
| City of Chicago Department of Water | History of the Chicago Department of Water - At the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Fort Dearborn was built on the site where the Chicago River flowed into Lake Michigan (now Michigan Avenue at Wacker Drive), early settlers used the river to supply their water needs. As the population of the area grew, the river became increasingly polluted. Chicago had only 350 residents when the town was originally chartered in 1833. Within a year the population had grown to over 2,000 and village trustees subsequently arranged for the construction of a public well at Hubbard Street and Wabash Avenue. People carried water from this well to their homes in buckets, and peddlers transported water in mule-drawn carts and sold it door-to-door for ten cents a barrel. |
| S&WB of New Orleans | Water Treatment in New Orleans - A description of how water from the Mississippi River is purified for municipal use. Teacher Resources {Not on line, must be ordered - RJ} |
| UCLA Institute of the Environment | Drinking Water Quality - Includes a schematic diagram of the traditional U.S. drinking water treatment plant using chlorination. |
| Wellowner.org | How to Own a Private Water System - As you embark on purchasing, acquiring or maintaining your private water system, we have created a resource packed full of information to help you get started. Here you will find the answers to many common questions concerning your well. |
| US Department of Agriculture |
Water and Environmental Programs Home Page - Water and Environmental Programs (WEP) provides loans, grants and loan guarantees for drinking water, sanitary sewer, solid waste and storm drainage facilities in rural areas and cities and towns of 10,000 or less. Public bodies, non-profit organizations and recognized Indian tribes may qualify for assistance. WEP also makes grants to nonprofit organizations to provide technical assistance and training to assist rural communities with their water, wastewater, and solid waste problems. |
| American Ground Water Trust | The
Trust, an independent authority on the hydrologic, economic and
environmental significance of ground water, combines technical expertise
with a track record of networking and communication skills. Well Owner Pamphlets, Kits, and Videos |
| About Your Drinking Water CITY OF COLUMBIA, South Carolina | The City of Columbia's Department of Utilities and Engineering has published a Lead Public Education Newsletter annually since 1993. This is the electronic version of the newsletter. This year, the newsletter has been expanded to include additional information on water quality. The convenience of having an adequate and safe supply of drinking water is often taken for granted. We hope the information contained in this newsletter will help our customers make better informed personal choices about their water supply. |
| Oasis
Design |
Slow Sand Filtration - Slow sand filtration technology is especially appropriate for small communities that are required to use filtration to comply with new regulations. This manual of design is intended to serve their special needs. |
| Osmonics |
Pure Water Handbook
(PDF - 151 pages) Water – The Problem of Purity Natural Contamination and Purification Bacterial Contamination Identifying Impurities General Qualitative Identification General Qualitative Identification Specific Impurities Methods of Water Purification Municipal or Utility Water Treatment On-Site Treatment Examples of High-Purity Water Treatment Systems Water Purification into the 21st Century |
| Ohionline | Safe Drinking Water: How can we provide it in our community? Many important issues emerge when considering the provision of drinking water in a small community. The following worksheets address some of the key issues. Please use these worksheets in a group discussion with a few friends and colleagues. For example: |
| National Acadamy Press |
Ground Water Recharge Using Waters of Impaired Quality - As demand for water increases, water managers and planners will need to look widely for ways to improve water management and augment water supplies. This book concludes that artificial recharge can be one option in an integrated strategy to optimize total water resource management and that in some cases impaired-quality water can be used effectively as a source for artificial recharge of ground water aquifers. Source water quality characteristics, pretreatment and recharge technologies, transformations during transport through the soil and aquifer, public health issues, economic feasibility, and legal and institutional considerations are addressed. The book evaluates three main types of impaired quality water sources--treated municipal wastewater, stormwater runoff, and irrigation return flow--and describes which is the most consistent in terms of quality and quantity. Also included are descriptions of seven recharge projects. {Not exactly Municipal Water Treatment, but interesting none-the-less - RJ} |
| Culligan of Canada | Brief descriptions of: Filtration: Particulate Filtration, Activated Carbon, Manganese Greensand, Municipal Softening: Water Softening, Dealkalization Reverse Osmosis Deionization |
| EPA Office of Water Kid's Stuff | Water Treatment Path - Follow
a drop of water from the source through the treatment process. Water may
be treated differently in different communities depending on the quality
of the water which enters the plant. EPA Explorer Club, For Kids EPA Student Center EPA Environment Education Center, For Teachers |
| Science @ NASA | Plumbing the Space Station - Nothing goes to waste on the International Space Station where nearly everything is recycled. What makes this ecologist's dream world work? Some of the fanciest plumbing in the solar system! {not precisely municipal water treatment, but interesting - RJ} |
| Other Links about Municipal water Public Water Systems, Alaska List of some Water Treatment Facilities City of Owin Sound, Process Schematic (on page 3) Water Treatment Links (1/2 way down page) Drinking Water Treatment Process, Philadelphia Other Information Chlorination, MX, and the Law of Unintended Consequences |
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|
Private Well Water Treatment Links |
| XPLOR ( Extension Publication Library On Request) Search Page | Understanding
Your Water Test Report - This publication summarizes information to
help you interpret a report from a water testing laboratory and to
decide what action to take. It is intended primarily for homeowners with
private water supplies (home wells), but environmental organizations,
health departments, water testing laboratories and those on public water
supplies may find this material of interest. Regular water tests are recommended for all household water systems. Public water supplies are tested regularly in accordance with state and federal regulation. However, there is no law or regulation requiring testing or establishing water quality standards for private supplies. Owners and users of private water supplies are advised to test their water regularly and to interpret the results using the safe drinking water standards for public systems except as noted here. See MU publication, Water Testing: What to Test For, for further information. |
| EPA Office of Water | What
Do I Need To Know To Protect My Private Drinking Water Supply? -
Approximately 23 million U.S. citizens rely on their own private
drinking water supplies. Most of these supplies are drawn from ground
water through wells, but some households also use water from streams or
cisterns. These households must take special precautions to ensure the
protection and maintenance of their drinking water supplies. Private drinking water wells - Approximately 42 million people (US Geological Survey, 1995) in the U.S. obtain water from their own private drinking water supplies. Most of these supplies are drawn from ground water through wells, but some households also use water from streams or cisterns. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) | Water Quality and Private Water Supplies - While public water supplies are monitored to ensure safety, water from private sources is not. The user must assume complete responsibility for its safety. There are no state or federal laws which require the testing of water from private supply sources. |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) |
Water Quality: Testing For Water Quality - Pure water is tasteless, colorless, and odorless. Although free-flowing or soil-filtered water can prove good-quality drinking water, the water can be polluted with bacteria or chemicals from unseen sources. You must, therefore, ensure your drinking water is free of toxic or corrosive substances, contains enough naturally dissolved minerals to improve its taste, and has a clean appearance with no odor. |
| NWQD (National extension Water Quality Database) |
Removing Radon from {Well} Water Using Aeration and Granular Activated Carbon - There are two methods of removing radon from well water: aeration and granulated activated carbon (GAC). Although aeration is the more expensive of the two, it is preferred for water containing more than 25,000 picocuries per liter. Both aeration and GAC systems can remove more than 90% of the radon in water. |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) | Drinking Water: Bacteria - The presence of bacteria and pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms is a concern when considering the safety of drinking water. Pathogenic organisms can cause intestinal infections, dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid fever, cholera, and other illnesses. |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) |
Shock Chlorination of Domestic Water Supplies - Unlike public water supplies that are regularly tested to ensure the water is safe to drink, individuals or families using private water supplies are responsible for testing for contamination. If test results indicate that bacterial contamination is occurring, shock chlorination is the most widely suggested method of treatment. Shock chlorination is the one-time introduction of a strong chlorine solution into the entire water distribution system (well, pump, distribution pipeline, hot water heater, etc.). |
| Publications (University of Wisconsin, Cooperative Extension) | Improving
Your Drinking Water Quality {Wells} (PDF file) Assessing the Risk of Groundwater Contamination from Drinking Water Well Condition - Worksheet takes you through well condition and management practices. (PDF file) |
| Welcome to SEAHOME, where you can download free interactive software on environmental topics. These programs are produced by Purdue University in cooperation with US EPA. | Private
Water Systems
- A complete minicourse in design and construction of private
drinking water systems (wells and piping). Includes water quantities
required, water pumps, systems controls, design considerations and
piping. Equivalent to a 200-page book that takes you by the hand and
teaches you! This Ground Water Primer educates users about the nature of ground water and the principles of groundwater protection. It contains a detailed introduction to hydrogeology, information on numerous drinking water contaminants, and a section on what you can do to protect your ground water. You can learn about ground water protection programs in EPA and other government agencies, and find EPA contacts and hotline numbers. |
| IANR (Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) |
Drinking
Water: Iron and Manganese - Generally
speaking, there are five basic methods for treating water containing
these contaminants. They are: |
| Other Well-Related Links Keeping Your Well Water Well Private Water Systems, Alaska Residential Water from nonpublic Sources And its Treatment | |
